Factsheets

Types of Electric Vehicles

• Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are powered exclusively by an electric motor and onboard battery that is usually recharged from the grid.¹ BEVs achieve their best travel range in moderate temperatures and offer better range in cities due to regenerative braking.² BEVs have no tailpipe emissions, though grid electricity they use is likely to generate emissions.³
• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are powered by both  an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electric motor/battery that can also be charged from the grid, enabling the vehicle to run on liquid fuels and in all-electric mode. PHEVs can typically travel between 20 and 40 miles solely on electricity before switching to gasoline.¹ PHEVs and BEVs are both called EVs in this factsheet.
• Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) use an ICE and one or more electric motors that use energy stored in a battery. Unlike in BEVs and PHEVs, an HEV battery is charged by the ICE and regenerative braking rather than by plugging in.¹
• Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) convert energy stored as hydrogen into electricity using a fuel cell. FCEVs produce no harmful tailpipe emissions, emitting only water vapor, oxygen, and heat; their impact is dependent on the hydrogen production process.⁴
• Vehicles that produce no emissions from the onboard source of power—including BEVs and FCEVs—are called zero emission vehicles (ZEVs).

Electric Vehicle Comparison

Image

Electric Vehicle Technologies

• Since BEVs run only on electricity, they do not include engines,  liquid fuel components, or exhaust systems.⁵
• Electric motors drive the vehicle wheels using energy from the traction battery pack. All EVs use motors that have both drive and regeneration functions. The traction battery pack stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor.⁵
• Battery size, chemistry, and vehicle efficiency determine the range of the vehicle, with current BEVs having a range between 110-520 mi on a full charge.¹
• BEVs use three types of lithium-ion batteries: lithium manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), lithium iron phosphate (LFP), and lithium nickel-cobalt-aluminum oxide (NCA).¹ LFP has lower price, and is prevalent in China, while NMC is more common in the EU and U.S.⁶
• EVs can be charged using electric vehicle service equipment (EVSE) at different charging speeds. Level 1 equipment using a standard outlet can take 40-50+ hours to charge a BEV from empty to 80%. Level 2 equipment can charge a BEV in 4-10 hours. Direct current fast charging (DCFC) equipment can charge a BEV in 20 minutes to 1 hour. Level 2 and DCFC equipment are deployed at many public locations.^7,8

EV Charging Levels⁷

Image

Current Market

Market Leaders

• Combined sales of BEVs, PHEVs, and HEVs in the U.S. rose to 16.3% of total light-duty vehicle (LDV) sales in 2023, up from 12.9% in 2022.⁹ 
• In 2023, EVs represented 9.3% of U.S. LDV sales, with 7.4% (over 1.1M) from BEVs, and 1.9% from PHEVs. BEVs accounted for only 0.002% of LDV sold in the U.S. in 2010.¹⁰
• EVs acconted for around 18% of all cars sold globally in 2023, up from 14% in 2022 and only 2% in 2018.⁶ China sold 60% of global EVs with Europe and the U.S. at 25% and 10% respectively.⁶ In 2022, Norway was the global leader with a 79% of its new LDV sales being EVs.¹¹
• Global spending on EVs exceeded $425B in 2022 with 10% being direct incentives offered by govenment and the rest coming from buyers.¹²

Policies and Incentives

• In 2021, President Biden set a target to make 50% of all new LDVs zero-emission vehicles (ZEV) by 2030.¹³ California approved a first-in-nation ZEV regulation that 100% of new cars and light trucks sold will be ZEVs by 2035.¹⁴ As of the end of 2023, 17 states and the District of Columbia had adopted California’s ZEV regulations.¹⁵ 
• Under the Inflation Reduction Act, the Clean Vehicle Credits qualify purchasers of eligible new electric vehicles a federal tax credit up to $7,500 through 2032.¹⁶ Taxpayers who purchase eligible used EVs from a licensed dealer for $25,000 or less in 2023-2032 may be eligible to receive a federal tax credit of up to $4,000.¹⁷ 
• Check fueleconomy.gov for vehicles eligible for the Clean Vehicle Credits.
• Caps on retail price and buyer income are set to prevent subsidizing EV purchases by high-income buyers.¹⁸ A 2016 study found that the top 20% of income earners received about 90% of all tax credits for EVs.¹⁹
• Businesses and tax-exempt organizations that purchase a qualified commercial clean vehicle in 2023-2032 may be able to take a tax credit of up to $7,500 for vehicles under 14,000 lbs, and $40,000 for larger vehicles.²⁰
• The Alternative Fuel Vehicle Refueling Property Credit allows taxpayers to claim up to $1,000 for EV charger and hardware installation through 2032.²¹
• Buyers in 14 states can access BEV incentives from state governments, with an average value of around $2,000.²² CA, CO, CT, MA, ME, OR, PA, and RI offered additional purchase incentives to low-income buyers, or those living in air pollution districts as of 2023.^{22 ,23}
• The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act provided $7.5B to create a nationwide network of 500,000 EV chargers.²⁴

Current Limitations and Barriers

• Most of the critical minerals used in BEVs are concentrated in electric motors (neodymium, praseodymium, and dysprosium) and batteries (lithium, cobalt, manganese, nickel, and graphite).²⁵
• Permanent-magnet motors are the most commonly used type in electric vehicles. They can contain 0.06-0.35 kg rare earth elements along with 0.25-0.50 kg neodymium, 3-6 kg copper, 0.9-2 kg iron, and 0.01-0.03 kg boron per vehicle.²⁵
• The lithium-ion batteries used in BEVs are composed of cells in modules within the battery pack that usually account for 70-85% of total battery weight. Lithium-ion batteries contain minerals such as lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, graphite, and copper. As a result of these mineral-intensive components, BEVs contain approximately six times more minerals by mass than ICEVs.²⁵ 
• Lithium recycling infrastructure could ease the strain on the supply chain, but the lack of standardization and regulation for lithium-ion batteries paired with the cost of keeping recylcing plants operational in the developing supply chain make recovering lithium a difficult task.^26,27
• Lower income households experience the highest BEV energy burdens, or portion of income spent on fuel cost.²⁸ Adopting EVs would reduce both GHGs and energy burden for over 90% of vehicle-owning U.S. households.²⁸
• In 2023, there were 68,475 EV charging stations and a total of 184,089 EVSE ports in the U.S., double than in 2018.²⁹ Adding 33M EVs by 2030 is estimated to require a national network of 28M charging ports (26.8M private and 1.2M public).³⁰

Impacts, Solutions, and Sustainability

• Total life cycle GHG emissions for new BEVs are 57% lower compared to the same ICEV (pickup truck, SUV, sedan) on average across the U.S., though BEVs have roughly double GHG emissions of ICEVs in the production phase of their lifecycle due to emissions during battery production.³¹